Babylon, Babylonia

Babylonia was a region in southern Mesopotamia, in what is now southeastern Iraq. Politically, the name refers to the ancient kingdoms that flourished there, especially during the seventh and sixth centuries BC. Their capital was Babylon, also called Bab-ilu, meaning “gate of god.”

The adjective Babylonian has a broader meaning. It may refer to the land or its people, the kingdom or its subjects, or a dialect of one of the main languages of ancient Mesopotamia.

Two main features shape Babylonia’s geography: the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Both rivers begin in the mountains of eastern Turkey. They first flow in different directions, then move closer together near Baghdad. Farther south, they join and flow into the Persian Gulf.

Politically, Babylonia mostly covered the same area as geographic Babylonia. Its main centers, however, were not in the fertile plain between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. They were located along the main channel and several branches of the Euphrates.

At times, the kingdom extended east beyond the Tigris River. It reached into the plains and foothills of the Zagros Mountains, especially along the Tigris’s eastern tributaries.

Babylonian culture developed as Sumerian influence shaped the different peoples who had settled in the region. Sumerian civilization began to flourish in Babylonia sometime between 3200 and 2900 BC. All dates in this section are approximate.

The two main languages of the region were Akkadian and Sumerian. Akkadian was a Semitic language. Scholars still do not know what language family Sumerian belonged to.

The earliest inscriptions from Babylonia that scholars can understand date to about 3100 BC. They are written in Sumerian, which remained the main written language across Mesopotamia for about 700 years.

The Sumerians also developed cuneiform, a writing system made with wedge-shaped marks. Cuneiform remained in use for almost 3,000 years.

Over time, Akkadian culture began to challenge Sumerian influence. Sargon I took political and cultural leadership away from the south. His name, Sharru-kin, means “true king.” He ruled from 2339 to 2279 BC and founded Akkad, also called Agade, as his capital.

The Akkadian Empire lasted for nearly two centuries under Sargon and his successors (2334–2154 BC). It came to an end when the Guti, a mountain people from the east, invaded the region. The Sumerian king Utuhegal of Uruk later defeated the Guti. His victory began a revival of Sumerian power and culture in Babylonia, led by a dynasty of kings based in the ancient city of Ur.

At the same time, Semitic-speaking peoples from the west were putting pressure on Babylonia through migration and warfare. These groups were known as the Amurru, or Martu. They were nomadic peoples from Syria who spoke a language related to Hebrew and Arabic.

Modern scholars call the Amurru “Amorites,” based on the name of their language. They were already known before the time of Sargon, before about 2340 BC. Native Babylonians viewed them as uncivilized and looked down on their way of life.

During the reign of Shar-kali-sharri, who ruled from 2254 to 2230 BC, the Amorites became a serious threat. About a century later, during the early Ur III period, the first large group of Amorites entered Babylonia. A second large migration took place during the reigns of the final two kings of the Ur III dynasty.

This second migration came during a time of political instability in Babylonia. As Sumerian political power weakened, Amorite rulers gained control and established the kingdom of Babylon.

The last Neo-Sumerian king, Ibbi-Sin, faced military threats from both the east and the west. He also faced rebellion within his kingdom.

Ishbi-Erra, the governor of Mari, took advantage of the Amorite invasions and rebelled against the king. Mari was about 805 kilometers (500 miles) up the Euphrates River. Ishbi-Erra established a rival kingdom with its capital at Isin, 80 kilometers (50 miles) from Ur.

At the same time, another dynasty arose in Larsa. This city was less than 32.2 kilometers (20 miles) across the Euphrates from Ur. Its ruler had an Amorite name.

Sumuabum founded the first dynasty of the kingdom of Babylon and ruled from 1894 to 1881 BC. Little is known about him. His next four successors were all members of the same royal family:

Sumulael, who ruled from 1880 to 1845 BC;

Sabium, who ruled from 1844 to 1831 BC;

Apil-Sin, who ruled from 1830 to 1813 BC; and

Sin-Muballit, who ruled from 1812 to 1793 BC.

Together, these five kings ruled for about a century. Their reigns were mostly peaceful. They focused mainly on religious buildings, defensive works, and the maintenance of irrigation canals. However, there is also some evidence that they conquered new territory.

Even so, the kingdom of Babylon probably extended no more than 80.5 kilometers (50 miles) in any direction from the capital. Hammurabi, the sixth king of the dynasty, ruled from 1792 to 1750 BC. He expanded the kingdom until it became an empire.

At its greatest size, the empire reached from the Persian Gulf north along the Tigris River to include some Assyrian cities. It also extended up the Euphrates River as far as Mari.

Babylon’s power did not last long. During the reign of Hammurabi’s son, Samsu-iluna, the kingdom became much smaller. It continued for another century, but its borders were narrower than they had been under Sumuabum.

From 1600 to 900 BC, several smaller dynasties ruled the region. After that, the Assyrians took control.

Shalmaneser III led the earliest Assyrian military campaigns into Babylonia. In 851 BC, the brother of Marduk-zakir-shumi, king of Babylon’s eighth dynasty, tried to become king with support from the Arameans. Marduk-zakir-shumi asked Assyria for help.

Shalmaneser defeated the rebels and entered Babylon. He treated the ancient city and its people with great respect. He then moved south into Sumer, where the Chaldeans lived, and forced them back toward the Persian Gulf.

Shalmaneser did not annex Babylonia. The reasons are not clear. Marduk-zakir-shumi remained king, but he pledged loyalty to the Assyrian ruler.

Rebellions spread throughout the Assyrian Empire during the final years of Shalmaneser III. Two powerful rulers later emerged from this period of disorder.

In Assyria, Tiglath-pileser III became king and ruled from 745 to 727 BC. In Babylonia, a Chaldean named Nabonassar had become king three years earlier. He ruled Babylon from 747 to 734 BC and followed the eighth dynasty.

After Nabonassar died, an Aramean leader named Nabu-mukin-zeri became king of Babylon. He ruled from 731 to 729 BC and established Babylon’s ninth dynasty.

Tiglath-pileser III defeated Nabu-mukin-zeri and devastated the territory of his tribe. Tiglath-pileser then had himself declared king of Babylon under the name Pulu. He ruled Babylonia from 729 to 727 BC as the second king of the ninth dynasty.

Little is known about his successor, Shalmaneser V, who ruled from 727 to 722 BC. Shalmaneser was declared king of both Assyria and Babylon. During his reign, Assyria began a siege against the kingdom of Israel after King Hoshea rebelled against Assyrian rule (2 Kings 17:1–6).

Merodach-baladan

Sargon II succeeded Shalmaneser V and ruled from 722 to 705 BC. The details of how he became king are unclear. He may have taken power from another ruler. This may explain why he chose the name Sargon, meaning "true king," after the Akkadian ruler who had lived about 1,500 years earlier.

Shortly before Sargon II became king, Elam began to take a more active role in Babylonian affairs. Elam supported rebellions against Assyrian rule.

After several successful military campaigns, Sargon II attacked Babylon again in 710 BC and conquered the city. He declared himself king of Babylon but still recognized Merodach-baladan as ruler of the Yakin tribe. Merodach-baladan then fled to Elam.

In 705 BC, Sargon’s son Sennacherib became king of Assyria and ruled until 681 BC. That same year, Merodach-baladan returned with support from Elamite officers and soldiers. He gained the support of the Aramean and Chaldean peoples of Babylonia, captured Babylon, and again declared himself king.

During this brief period, Merodach-baladan sent messengers to King Hezekiah of Judah with letters and a gift. The stated reason was to express concern after Hezekiah’s illness (2 Kings 20:12). However, Merodach-baladan may also have wanted Judah’s support against Assyria.

Hezekiah welcomed the Babylonian messengers and showed them all the wealth in his treasury. This suggests that he was open to an alliance with Babylon. The prophet Isaiah rebuked Hezekiah for showing them everything he owned. Isaiah then warned that Babylon would one day take away the treasures of Judah and carry some of Hezekiah’s descendants into captivity (2 Kings 20:13–19; Isaiah 39).

Sennacherib quickly removed Merodach-baladan as king of Babylon and forced him into exile. He then appointed Bel-ibni as king.

Conflict and Harmony

Esarhaddon, Sennacherib’s youngest son, became king of Assyria after a violent struggle with his brothers. He ruled from 681 to 669 BC.

One of his first actions was to rebuild and enlarge Babylon. This helped him gain the support of many Babylonian subjects and brought peace to that part of his empire.

Three years before his death, Esarhaddon named his son Ashurbanipal as the next king of Assyria. Ashurbanipal ruled from 669 to 627 BC. Esarhaddon also appointed another son, Shamash-shum-ukin, as viceroy of Babylonia. Shamash-shum-ukin ruled there from 668 to 648 BC.

The empire was not divided into two separate kingdoms ruled by two brothers. Ashurbanipal held higher authority than his brother and remained responsible for the whole empire. However, Shamash-shum-ukin and his Babylonian subjects governed their own territory. As viceroy, a ruler who represents a higher king, he had full authority within Babylonia.

This arrangement lasted for 17 years. Then Shamash-shum-ukin rebelled against Ashurbanipal with support from the Elamites and several Arab tribes. Ashurbanipal defeated the revolt by 648 BC. He then appointed a Chaldean noble named Kandalanu as viceroy of Babylonia.

Soon afterward, Ashurbanipal led a military campaign to punish his enemies. His forces devastated Babylonia and completely destroyed Elam.

Both Ashurbanipal and Kandalanu, his viceroy in Babylon, died in 627 BC. For a year, Babylonia had no recognized ruler. Then the Chaldean prince Nabopolassar seized the throne, and ruled from 625 to 605 BC. He founded the 10th dynasty of Babylon, now called the Chaldean or Neo-Babylonian dynasty.

Aided by Media, the kingdom of the Iranian Plateau, Nabopolassar put an end to the Assyrian Empire. By 612 BC, Assyria's chief cities had fallen:

Asshur, then the religious center;

Nineveh, the administrative center; and

Nimrod, the military headquarters.

Nabopolassar ended Assyrian rule in 609 BC. Under his son Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604 to 562 BC, Babylonia took control of much of the former Assyrian Empire. For a short time, Babylonia ruled most of the ancient Near East.

Nebuchadnezzar brought the kingdom of Judah to an end and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC. He also took part of Judah’s population to Babylonia. This event is known as the exile (2 Kings 24:1–25:21).

Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon became famous for its wealth and splendor. Within six years after his death, his son, son-in-law, and grandson each ruled in turn.

After them, a high-ranking official named Nabonidus became king. He ruled from 555 to 539 BC. During Nabonidus’s reign, the Medes came under the rule of Cyrus II of Persia. The Medes had once been allies of the Chaldeans. Over the next ten years, Cyrus built an empire that stretched nearly 4,827 kilometers (3,000 miles) , from the Aegean Sea to the Pamir Mountains in Central Asia.

During Cyrus’s ten years of conquest, Nabonidus was often absent from Babylon and lived in Arabia. The book of Daniel describes events in the Babylonian court during Nabonidus’s reign, but it does not mention him by name. Instead, it calls Belshazzar king. Nabonidus had appointed Belshazzar to govern Babylon during his absence (Daniel 5:1).

Nabonidus may have lost the support of the Babylonians because he remained away for so long. Another possible reason was his devotion to Sin, the moon god associated with Haran, rather than to Marduk, the chief god of Babylon.

Nabonidus returned to Babylon shortly before Cyrus attacked the city (Daniel 5:30–31). The Babylonian army did not resist. Instead, it joined Cyrus, and the city surrendered without a battle in October 539 BC. This ended the Chaldean dynasty and Babylonia’s independence.

The Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar’s time appears often near the end of 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles and in the early chapters of Daniel. Ezra and Nehemiah describe the later return of a remnant of the people of Judah from exile in Babylon.

Among the prophetic books, Isaiah speaks about Babylon during the period of Assyrian rule. About a century later, Jeremiah warns about the threat from Nebuchadnezzar. Ezekiel and Daniel describe Babylon from the viewpoint of people living in exile. The second half of Jeremiah contains as many references to Babylon as the rest of the Bible combined.

Robert Koldewey led excavations of much of Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon for the German Oriental Society. The work began in 1899 and continued through several excavation campaigns.

Koldewey found that the city covered about 1,013 hectares (2,500 acres). The older part of Babylon was completely surrounded by two walls made of unbaked mud bricks. The inner wall was higher and more than 6.4 meters (21 feet) thick. A military road 7 meters (23 feet) wide separated it from the outer wall. The outer wall was thinner but was still more than 3.7 meters (12 feet) thick.

Large fortified towers supported both walls at intervals of about 9.8 meters (65 feet). A moat lay outside the walls. In some places, it was more than 61 meters (200 feet) wide.

One of the most impressive discoveries was the Ishtar Gate. This double gateway was 12.2 meters (40 feet) high. It was covered with brightly colored glazed-brick images of 575 bulls and dragons. Ishtar was a goddess associated with love and fertility.

The Procession Way passed through the gate. This road was paved with limestone blocks measuring about one meter (3 feet) on each side. An inscription credited Nebuchadnezzar with building the road.

The walls beside the Procession Way were covered with glazed bricks decorated with 120 lions, which represented Ishtar. The road led to the temple of Marduk and the ziggurat beside it. A ziggurat was a large stepped temple tower.

See also Babylon As a Symbol; Postexilic Period; Diaspora of the Jews; Chaldea, Chaldeans; Nebuchadnezzar, Nebuchadrezzar; Book of Daniel.