Chronology of the Bible (New Testament)

Chronology is a part of biblical studies that tries to find the order of New Testament events and the time between them. Chronology is important for historians, who need to figure out the causes and effects of past events. For historians, knowing the order of events and how they influenced each other is more important than assigning exact dates. In fact, very few New Testament events can be dated precisely.

Date

Event

7/6 BC

Christ's birth

AD 6/7

Jesus in the temple

27

John the Baptist begins his ministry

27/28

Christ is baptized, begins his ministry

29/30

Christ is crucified, resurrected, and exalted

29/30

Pentecost

31–33

Paul's conversion

43

James, the apostle, is martyred

46/47

Famine visit to Jerusalem

47–48

Paul's first missionary journey

48

Jerusalem Council

49–52

Paul's second missionary journey

52–57

Paul's third missionary journey

57

Paul arrested in Jerusalem

57–59

Paul's imprisonment in Caesarea

60–62

Paul's imprisonment in Rome

62

James, the brother of Jesus, is martyred

62–64

Paul ministers in the eastern provinces

64

Paul's second imprisonment

64

Paul martyred

About 64

Peter martyred

70

Jerusalem falls

90–95

John exiled

About 100

John dies

Christianity's influence is evident in how the Western world divides history into BC (before Christ) and AD (anno Domini, “in the year of the Lord”). Before this dating system became common in the Middle Ages, people dated events by their relation to other major events, such as the founding of Rome or the start of a king's reign. In the sixth century, a monk named Dionysius Exiguus created the dating system now widely used in the West. He used the birth of Christ as the dividing point. However, he made a calculation error, leading to the odd fact that Jesus was born at least four years "before Christ."

The Life of Jesus

Events from AD 30 to 50

Events from AD 50 to 70

According to Matthew 2:1, Jesus was born during the time of King Herod. A historian from the first century AD, Josephus, noted that Herod died in the spring of 4 BC. So, Jesus was born before that year, but we do not know exactly when. Luke 2:1–2 mentions that Jesus was born when "Caesar Augustus," the Roman emperor, ordered a census (population count) across the nation. This was the first census taken when Quirinius was governor of Syria. These statements lead to two questions: When was this census taken, and when did Quirinius govern Syria? Neither question has a completely clear answer.

Along with earlier references, census records found in Egypt suggest enrollments took place every 14 years. This would place a census around 8 or 9 BC. Time was needed to complete the census because it required people to travel to their birthplace. So, the birth of Jesus might have been a bit later than the decree, possibly in 7 BC.

Josephus noted that Quirinius became governor of Syria in AD 6. This date is too late to fit the time of the birth of Jesus. However, some scholars have argued from ancient inscriptions that Quirinius also served in Syria before 6 BC. During that earlier period, he was a special representative of Emperor Augustus, not the regular governor. This earlier service might be the period mentioned in Luke 2:2.

Why did Luke mention Quirinius instead of the regular governor of Syria then? Perhaps Luke wanted to give a more exact date for the birth of Jesus. Quirinius held power for a shorter time than the regular governor, so the time frame would have been more exact.

Jesus was likely born around 7 or 6 BC. This aligns with Matthew 2:16, the verse that suggests Jesus was born at least two years before Herod's death in 4 BC. There is no clear evidence about the exact day and month of his birth. The celebration of December 25 as Christmas began in the fourth century. It was probably a Christian alternative to the pagan winter solstice festival, Saturnalia.

Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" when he started his ministry. This age is an estimate, so he could have been a few years older or younger (compare the Testament of Levi 2:2; 12:5, an ancient Jewish writing that is not part of the Bible). If we add 30 years to the suggested birth date, we get AD 24.

This date cannot be right, however, because Jesus began his ministry after John the Baptist was known. Luke 3:1–3 specifies that John the Baptist appeared publicly in "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar" when Pilate was governor of Judea. Pilate governed from AD 26 to 36, and the 15th year of Tiberius was likely AD 27. Therefore, Jesus did not start his ministry before AD 27. If only a short time passed between the ministry of John and the ministry of Jesus, Jesus likely began in AD 27 or 28, around 33 years old.

All four Gospel accounts suggest that Jesus had the Last Supper with his disciples on Thursday evening. He was crucified on Friday, and rose from the dead early Sunday morning (Matthew 28:1; Mark 16:1; Luke 24:1). The idea that Jesus rose on the third day (1 Corinthians 15:4) comes from the Jewish tradition of counting part of a day as a full day. According to Matthew (26:19), Mark (14:12), and Luke (22:15), the Last Supper was the Passover meal, an annual celebration of Israel’s escape from Egypt (Exodus 12–15). However, according to John 13:1 and 19:14, the Passover meal had not yet been eaten on Friday, so the Last Supper in John was not the Passover meal.

No one has fully explained the apparent discrepancy. Some scholars suggest that using two different calendars caused the confusion. According to this theory, Jesus followed a calendar that placed the Passover meal on Thursday night. Temple officials, however, used a different calendar. According to this calendar the sacrificial killings were scheduled for the next day. John may have used the second system to emphasize that Christ was offered as the Passover sacrifice (compare John 19:36; 1 Corinthians 5:7).

To determine how long the public ministry of Jesus lasted and the year he died, we can look at time references in John's Gospel. John mentions at least three Passovers (John 2:13; 6:4; 13:1) and possibly four (5:1). Since Passover was an annual event, the ministry of Jesus lasted at least two, possibly three years. In Matthew, Mark, and Luke, Jesus died on a Friday, the 15th of the Jewish month Nisan (which overlaps March and April). According to John, Jesus died on 14 Nisan. The question is: Between 26 and 36 (when Pilate governed Judea), when did 14 or 15 Nisan fall on a Friday? The answer is AD 27, 29, 30, and 33. Of these, 27 is too early and 33 is likely too late. Therefore, Jesus was probably crucified in 29 or 30, his public ministry lasted two or three years, and he was 35 or 36 years old when he died.

Acts is the only New Testament book that records how much time passed between the death of Jesus and his return to heaven. Acts 1:3 says, "After His suffering, He presented Himself to them with many convincing proofs that He was alive. He appeared to them over a span of forty days and spoke about the kingdom of God."

The next important event after Jesus went to heaven was Pentecost (Acts 2:1). Pentecost, a Greek word meaning "fiftieth," was a celebration of the Feast of Weeks or Harvest. The Feast happened 50 days after Passover (see Exodus 34:22; Deuteronomy 16:9–12). Jesus was crucified during Passover in AD 29 or 30. The Pentecost in Acts 2:1, when the disciples received the Holy Spirit, took place about 50 days after the crucifixion. This would also have been around 10 days after the ascension, when Jesus went up to heaven.

After that, it is hard to know the exact dates of events in the early chapters of Acts because there are no specific timeframes. To date events in the time of the apostles, we first find at least one event with a known date from sources outside the New Testament. Then, we estimate the time between events before and after that event. Sometimes, Acts tells us how much time passes between two events, but usually it does not, so the dates are only approximate.

One key event is the great famine predicted by Agabus, which occurred in Palestine during the rule of Roman Emperor Claudius (Acts 11:28–29). Josephus, alive during that time, provides enough details to place the famine between 46 and 48 AD. The Mishnah, a collection of Jewish laws, tells us that from autumn 47 to autumn 48 was a sabbatical year. During this time, Jews let the land rest and did not harvest crops (see Leviticus 25:2–7). This practice could have worsened and extended the famine. However, it is unclear when the famine started. Some scholars suggest 46 AD, while others propose 47 AD.

It might seem strange that Luke, the author of Acts, mentions the famine (Acts 11:28) before describing the death of Herod Agrippa (12:20–23). The Jewish historian Josephus says that Herod Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, died in about AD 44, probably in the spring. If so, Herod died several years before the famine that Luke mentioned earlier.

Some scholars think Luke placed these events in the wrong order. Others believe Acts 12:1–24 returns to an earlier event so that Luke can complete the account of the church in Jerusalem. Ancient historians often organized their writing this way by following one source to a suitable stopping point before turning to another. According to this view, Luke's order of events reflects an accepted writing method rather than a mistake in dating.

Herod Agrippa died in AD 44 (Acts 12:23). The apostle James, whom Herod killed with a sword (verse 2), likely died shortly before AD 44, possibly during Passover in AD 43 (verse 3). The apostle Peter was imprisoned and miraculously escaped during this time (verses 3–17).

Christians in Antioch decided to help those in Jerusalem during a severe famine (Acts 11:29), choosing Barnabas and Paul to deliver the money. This was Paul's second trip to Jerusalem after he became a Christian. Acts 9:26–30 describes his first visit. Acts 15 describes his third visit. This is when Paul and Barnabas went to discuss with the apostles and elders if non-Jewish converts to Christianity needed to be circumcised. The timing of Paul's first and third visits to Jerusalem, and his conversion, depends on how these visits relate to the visits mentioned in Paul's letter to the Galatians.

The main question, which New Testament scholars still debate, concerns Paul’s visits to Jerusalem. In Galatians 1:15–2:10, Paul says that he visited Jerusalem twice after his conversion. The first visit was three years later (1:18). The second was 14 years after that (2:1–10).

All scholars agree that the first visit, three years after his conversion, matches the first visit recorded in Acts 9:26–30. However, opinions differ on whether Galatians 2:1–10 refers to the second visit to Jerusalem during the famine in Acts 11:30. In this case the third visit in Acts 15 is not mentioned in Galatians. Or, Galatians 2:1–10 could refer to the visit in Acts 15. In this case, the famine visit is not mentioned in Galatians.

Jerusalem visit in Acts

Reconstruction 1

Reconstruction 2

Acts 9:26–30 (first visit, three years after conversion)

Galatians 1:18

Galatians 1:18

Acts 11:30 (famine visit)

Galatians 2:1–10

Not mentioned in Galatians

Acts 15:1–29 (Jerusalem Council)

Council had not yet occurred; Galatians written just before the Council

Galatians 2:1–10

Supporters of the first reconstruction present six arguments:

Paul detailed his travels in Galatians 1:15–24 to show he did not learn his gospel from people (1:12). His visits to the Jerusalem apostles were not to receive his gospel. If Paul left out the second Jerusalem visit, it would harm his credibility with the Galatians. The first reconstruction avoids this issue. Leaving out a third visit in Galatians 2:1–10 might mean it had not happened when Galatians was written.

Galatians 2:1–10 describes a private meeting between Paul, Barnabas, and the "pillar" apostles. The meeting in Acts 15 was public and involved the entire church. So, Galatians 2:1–10 likely refers to a private meeting during the visit in Acts 11:30, which Galatians does not mention.

Paul's eagerness to help the poor in Galatians 2:10 fits with the second Jerusalem visit, when he delivered aid to the poor (Acts 11:30).

If Galatians 2 described the same trip as Acts 15, it would likely mention the Jerusalem Council's decision. This is especially likely, since it related to the circumcision issue Paul addressed in Galatians.

It is unlikely the Jerusalem Council happened before Galatians 2:11–21. This is where Paul rebuked Peter for avoiding fellowship with non-Jewish believers. This would not have been an issue if the church had recently settled the Gentile status issue in Jerusalem.

According to Galatians 1:6, the letter was written "quickly" after Paul founded the Galatian churches. This makes sense if Galatians was written soon after the first missionary journey, just before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. This would mean Galatians was Paul's first letter.

Scholars who support the second reconstruction present four arguments:

The main purpose of Paul's visit in Galatians 2:1–10 seems similar to that in Acts 15:1–20. Both address whether Gentile converts need circumcision (Galatians 2:3–5; Acts 15:1, 5). This similarity is clear, but there is no such clear link between Galatians 2 and Acts 11:30.

Based on style and content, Galatians resembles Romans and 1 and 2 Corinthians. This suggests it was written much later than the Jerusalem Council. Paul likely would have included a reference to the Jerusalem Council (namely Galatians 2:1–10) in his writings, as its decision supported his view on circumcision.

Acts 11:30 shows Barnabas as the leader of the Barnabas/Paul team, with his name listed first (as in Acts 12:25; 13:1–2, 7; see also 11:25–26). However, in Galatians 2, Paul describes himself as the leader. Acts portrays Paul as the leader from the first missionary journey (Acts 13:9, 13, 43, 46, 50), including the third Jerusalem visit (15:2). Because of this, it is more likely that Galatians 2 refers to the trip in Acts 15.

Finally, in Galatians 2:7–8, Paul is recognized as an apostle to the Gentiles, equal to Peter. If Galatians 2 described events from Acts 11:30 before the first missionary journey, the leading apostles could hardly have recognized Paul's authority as an apostle to the Gentiles. It is more likely that Galatians 2 occurred after the first missionary journey, just as Acts 15 did, and that both refer to the same event.

The importance of these arguments for chronology is that, in the first view, Paul's conversion happened 17 years before the famine visit mentioned in Acts 11:30 (see also Galatians 1:18; 2:1). In the second view, Paul's conversion occurred 17 years before the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15. The difference between these views is just one year.

It is useful to consider a likely date for Paul's arrival in Corinth during his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1). On this journey (15:40–18:22), Paul and Silas traveled by land through Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, and Galatia. They visited churches they had founded earlier. They reached Troas, then moved on to Philippi and continued along the coast through Thessalonica and Berea.

Paul went to Athens before arriving in Corinth. From Acts 18:12, we know Gallio was a proconsul (governor) in Corinth while Paul was there. An inscription found at nearby Delphi suggests Gallio's term was from mid-51 to mid-52. The event in Acts 18:12–17 likely happened early in Gallio's term, as the Jews sought a ruling against Paul from the new proconsul. Shortly after, Paul left Corinth, probably in the summer or fall of 51.

According to Acts 18:11, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth, suggesting he arrived in early 50 or late 49. This is supported by Acts 18:2, which mentions that Aquila and Priscilla had recently been exiled from Rome when Paul arrived. A fifth-century historian, Orosius, dated Claudius's official order expelling Jews from Rome to AD 49. Therefore, Paul, Aquila, and Priscilla likely arrived around late 49 or early 50. Early in his 18-month stay, Paul wrote his First and Second Letters to the Thessalonians.

The two fixed dates are 46 or 47 for the famine visit (Acts 11:30) and late 49 or early 50 for Paul's arrival in Corinth (Acts 18:1). Considering the time gaps mentioned in Galatians 1:18 and 2:1, and assuming the first missionary journey lasted about a year, the two reconstructions are shown in the table below. Remember, these are estimates and reflect the ancient practice of counting part of a year as a whole year.

Earlier Dates

Event

Later Dates

31 or 32

Paul’s conversion (Acts 9:3–19)

32 or 33

33 or 34

First Jerusalem visit (Acts 9:26–30)

34 or 35

46 or 47

Famine visit (Acts 11:30)

46 or 47

47–48

First missionary journey (Acts 13:4–14:28)

47–48

48

Jerusalem Council (Acts 15:1–29)

48

Late 49 or Early 50

Paul’s arrival in Corinth on second missionary journey (Acts 18:1)

Late 49 or Early 50

Autumn 51

Paul’s departure from Corinth (Acts 18:18)

Autumn 51

Acts 24:27 records an event that helps establish dates for other events in Acts. Porcius Festus replaced Felix as governor of Judea. Evidence from Eusebius, a historian who lived in the fourth century, suggests that this change probably took place in the summer of AD 59.

Paul was arrested in Jerusalem (Acts 21:33) in 57, about two years before Festus arrived. This likely happened in late spring or summer of 57. Paul hoped to reach Jerusalem by Pentecost (20:16), which was at the end of May. He was arrested shortly after arriving in the city.

Paul celebrated the Passover festival with the church in Philippi (Acts 20:6), which was 50 days before Pentecost. This likely took place from April 7–14, AD 57. After the feast, he quickly traveled to Caesarea and Jerusalem (20:6–21:16). Before visiting Philippi for Passover, Paul spent three months in Greece (20:3). Based on his travels through Macedonia and visits to the Thessalonians and Bereans, these three months were likely the winter of 56–57 (Acts 20:3; compare 1 Corinthians 16:6). He probably spent this time in Corinth, the main church of Greece, where he partly wrote the Letter to the Romans.

Five years passed between Paul's departure from Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:18) in autumn 51 and his arrival in Corinth on the third journey (20:2) in late winter 56. We cannot date all his activities exactly. Paul mentioned working in Ephesus for three of those years (20:31; see also 19:1–20:1). Considering travel time before and after, he likely stayed in Ephesus from 52 or 53 to summer 55 or 56 (see 1 Corinthians 16:8). During his long stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote his First Letter to the Corinthians. On his way to Corinth in 56, he wrote 2 Corinthians from Macedonia.

Festus became governor in the summer of 59, after Paul had been in prison in Caesarea for two years. A few days later, Paul was tried before Festus (Acts 25:1–12). Paul did not want to be handed over to the Jewish authorities, so he appealed to Caesar (verse 12), meaning he would go to Rome. Acts does not mention any delays, so the journey likely started in the summer or fall of 59 (27:2).

Luke reported that when Paul, a prisoner, reached Fair Havens on the island of Crete, the weather was dangerous for sea travel because the fast had passed (Acts 27:8–9). An ancient writer noted that sailing was risky between mid-September and mid-November, and impossible until spring. The fast likely referred to the one before the Day of Atonement, which in the year 59 was on October 5.

Fourteen days after leaving Fair Havens, Paul's ship was wrecked on the coast of Malta, south of Sicily (verses 27–44). Three months later, Paul sailed for Rome again on a ship that had wintered in Malta (28:11). Soon, Christians in Rome welcomed him (verse 15). Paul arrived in Rome in early AD 60. The book of Acts ends by noting, "Paul stayed there two full years in his own rented house" (verse 30). The New Testament does not mention the outcome of his trial. Traditionally, during this time, he wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.

Eusebius recorded a tradition that after defending himself, Paul was sent out to preach again, and that when he returned to Rome a second time, he was killed under Nero. Nero, the Roman emperor from 54 to 68, executed many Christians in Rome soon after a major fire in July 64, according to the Roman historian Tacitus.

Some early Christian writings, like those by Clement, suggest that Peter and Paul were both killed in Rome during this brutal persecution. If this is true and Eusebius was correct, Paul may have spent the years 62 to 64 freely ministering in the eastern provinces. Many conservative scholars believe Paul’s First Letter to Timothy and his Letter to Titus were written during this time. Second Timothy was probably written from Rome shortly before Paul was killed for his faith in 64. It was likely his final letter (2 Timothy 2:9; 4:6).

In Jerusalem, within three years after Paul had been taken to Rome, James the brother of Jesus was stoned to death by the Jewish authorities. Josephus records this event happening in 62. Soon after, Eusebius notes that the church in Jerusalem received a prophecy. It warned them to leave the doomed city and move to Pella, one of the cities of the Decapolis (“ten cities”) east of the Jordan. When war began between the Jews and Romans in 66, most Christians escaped the violence. The war ended in 70 with the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (see Mark 13:2; Luke 21:24).

See also Book of the Acts of the Apostles; Apostle, Apostleship; Age; First Jewish Revolt; Genealogy of Jesus Christ; Teachings of Jesus Christ; Paul the Apostle.